At its peak, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Pacific Ocean to central Europe. It was the largest contiguous land empire in the history of the world, but it broke apart in the 1260s as a result of civil war.
The Eastern Steppe was where the Mongol Empire started. The Horde: How the Mongols changed the world was written by Marie Favereau, an associate professor of history at Paris Nanterre University.
The mongol horses were trained to follow their riders and return to camp on their own.
The horses allowed the Mongols to travel vast distances and control a large swathe of territory. The use of powerful weapons that could be used on horseback and other new technologies gave them a strong advantage in battle, according to Timothy May, a professor at the University of North Georgia.
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The founder of the Mongol Empire was Genghis Khan. His father, Yesukai, was the leader of a group of 40,000 families. Yesukai was killed by poison when he was a child, and some of the families that were loyal to his father deserted him.
The family persevered, and the leader of the group was Temujin. He gradually built up his power while fighting other groups. The name Genghis Khan is sometimes translated as a universal ruler.
The world was taken by storm by Genghis Khan's conquests. The capital of the Jin dynasty was captured in 1215 by him. In 1219, the shah of Khwarezm was conquered by a large army of troops from the Mongols.
Morris Rossabi, an associate professor of East Asian languages and cultures at Columbia University, wrote in his book that Genghis Khan's army made heavy use of cavalry, composite bows and feigned retreats to assist in its conquests. Prior to Genghis Khan's campaigns, theMongolians didn't have much experience in siege warfare and had to bring in foreign experts to provide the necessary skills.
Good environmental conditions may have aided the campaigns of Genghis Khan. A study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found that from 1211 to 1225 there was more grassland activity because of the moist climate. This may have helped fuel Genghis Khan's conquests as his army relied heavily on cavalry, which necessitated good pasture for horses.
The warm and consistently wet conditions of the early 13th century would have led to high grassland productivity and allowed for increases in domesticated livestock, including horses.
The management of the Mongol Empire was reformed by Genghis Khan. The Uyghur writing script was used in the creation of the writing system for the Mongolian language. He made administrative changes to his empire.
He instituted a more sophisticated administrative structure and a regular system of taxation once he had conquered territories beyond Mongolia.
The political institutions included aquriltai, where the empire's political elites would gather and Genghis Khan would give assignments, rewards and punishments. Khan's government included a personal guard and an inner circle of the emperor's friends. The most important aspect of his government was the golden lineage, which consisted of Khan and his descendants. According to the law of the Mongols, only members of the golden line could become the leader.
The ability to absorb people was one of the strengths of the military organization of the Mongols.
Recent research suggests that Khan died of bubonic plague.
The Mongols spread further west and reached central Europe in 1241. The Mongols would go as far west as this. The lack of pasture land, the presence of numerous fortified cities, and the death of gedai Khan are some of the reasons why the Mongols did not push deeper into Europe.
It wasn't until 1246 that one of Genghis Khan's heirs was determined. The power of the ruler had begun to fall apart. The two were on the verge of a civil war after Batu Khan refused to attend the meeting that led to GFC.
The decision of the next ruler was a source of disagreement. The widow of a man tried to hold power. Batu Khan deposed and killed her in 1251. Timothy May, a professor at the University of North Georgia, wrote in an article published in the book that Batu did not claim the throne for himself.
Most scholars today think that Möngke Khan was the last ruler of the Mongol Empire who had a degree of authority. May wrote that Möngke Khan brought in a number of administrative reforms. Changes to the tax system and a census of the entire Mongol Empire were included in his reforms.
The siege and subsequent loot of Baghdad in 1258 was one of the most controversial events of the time. Hulagu Khan is a grandson of Genghis Khan.
Baghdad was the seat of power of the Abbasid Caliphate. Alexander Gillespie, a professor of law at the University of Waikato, New Zealand wrote in his book "The Causes of War: Volume II" that he was the most senior religious leader in Islam because of his position as caliph. In theory, the theological core of Islam was the caliphate.
Despite the fact that he controlled less than Baghdad itself, Al-Musta'sim Billah refused to submit to the Mongols. He knew that the caliph would approve of attacks on other Muslim lands if he submitted to them.
The city was captured by the Mongols about two weeks later. The House of Wisdom was one of the largest libraries in the world at that time. People could walk across the river if they crossed the books that were thrown into the river. Modern-day historians disagree on how many books were destroyed, but the city was devastated and the caliph was executed.
The actions of Hulagu and his army were controversial. Berke Khan, one of the most senior commanders, was against the execution of the caliph. Historical records show that Berke Khan wrote a letter to Mngke Khan in 1259, promising to hold Hulagu responsible for so much innocent blood.
The civil war that broke out after the death of Möngke Khan broke out permanently. The great khan was claimed by his brothers Arigh and Böke and they organized their own enthronement.
Different leaders began to fight each other. Böke had to surrender in 1263. Qubilai was not able to exercise authority over the entire empire because he wasn't recognized as the great khan by all the different leaders.
For all practical purposes, the Mongol Empire was split into a number of smaller empires that ruled different parts of Asia and Europe.
Perhaps the best known of the smaller empires was China's Yuan dynasty, which was led by Kublai Khan. The southern part of China was ruled by a Chinese emperor in the 1263's, but the north and central part of China was ruled by this dynasty.
The emperor was either killed or committed suicide after the last Southern Song forces were defeated. China became unified under the rule of the Mongol-controlled Yuan dynasty.
The construction of the city of Xanadu was one of the most famous acts of the Mongols. It was used as a summer capital by the rulers of the Yuan dynasty. It had a palatial district, an imperial city and an outer city, and an area of over 500,000 square meters. There were dragons that decorated its palaces.
Marco Polo claimed to have risen to the rank of governor after he visited Xanadu around 1275. Modern-day historians debate whether Marco Polo ever went to Xanadu or served Kublai Khan.
The Yuan dynasty was short-lived. The destruction of Xanadu was caused by a rebellion in 1368. The new Chinese dynasty was able to take control of China because of this.
The Ilkhanate, which ruled an area stretching from Iran to parts of modern-day Turkey, emerged after the civil war of the Mongol empire. Its rulers converted to Islam. The last remnants of the Ilkhanate were destroyed in 1357.
The Ilkhanate is best known for its architectural achievements. The most famous example is a mausoleum in the city of Soltaniyeh in Iran. It is surrounded by eight minarets and has a blue faience dome that is 50 meters high. The UNESCO World Heritage Centre says that the Mausoleum of Oljaytu is an essential link and key monument in the development of Islamic architecture in central and western Asia.
The Golden Horde is a name used to describe the empire of the Mongols. In 1263, it controlled parts of Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and western Russia. After the civil war, the Golden Horde was in conflict with the Ilkhanate and the Chagatai Khanate.
The Golden Horde had good relations with European powers and used the Genoese as trading agents. The Golden Horde tried to control the princes of the cities it ruled, such as Moscow, and use them to collect taxes. At times the princes cooperated with the Golden Horde while at other times they launched rebellions that the Golden Horde had to put down.
The Black Death, rebellions and squabbles over who should lead the horde saw the Golden Horde fragment in the late 14th century. The end of the Yuan dynasty and Ilkhanate showed people that they could win. After a period of civil war, a man named Tokhtamysh was able to reunify the Golden Horde.
The Golden Horde came under attack from the Timurid Empire in the late 14th century. The Battle of the Terek River in the Caucasus resulted in the destruction of much of the Golden Horde. The remains of the Golden Horde were destroyed in the 15th century.
The Chagatai Khanate ruled over a large amount of land in central Asia. The Chagatai Khanate acknowledged the authority of Kublai Khan for a brief time before breaking away in the late 1260s and starting a war against the Yuan dynasty. Volume I is (LitRes,22).
The Chagatai Khanate ended in the 17th century. During the war with the Timurid Empire, the western half of the khanate was lost. The leader of the khanate ruled over time it became Turkic. In its final days, it was known as Yarkent Khanate. The last khan was deposed in 1705.
The story you heard about Genghis Khan's death is probably not true.
The Horde: How the Mongols changed the world was written by M. Favereau.
The Causes of War: Volume II was published in 2016
Jackson, P., wrote a book on Iranica.
The History of Kazakhstan from the Earliest Period to the Present Time was written by Z. Kundakbayeva. Volume I is called LitRes.
Pederson, Neil et al discussluvials, droughts, the Mongol Empire, and modern Mongolia in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
It can be found at www.pnas.org.
The University of Washington Press has a book on Genghis Khan.
The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia was written by Timothy M.
The World Heritage Centre, Soltaniyeh, is accessed on April 13th.
Genghis Khan was born around this year.
The name Genghis Khan is sometimes translated as the universal ruler.
Beijing is the capital of the Jin dynasty.
The shah of Khwarezm had an army of 200,000.
Genghis Khan died of a bubonic plague.
Hungary and Germany are now the sites of battles between the Mongols and the Germans. This is the farthest west that the Mongols have ever traveled.
gedai Khan died on December 1241. His succession is in dispute.
Khan is enthroned as a great khan. A rival, Batu Khan, is against this.
Khan died and his widow tried to rule as a regent.
1251 Oghul Qaimish is killed. The leader of the Mongols is Möngke Khan. He is the last great khan to have any level of authority.
The siege of Baghdad ends with the execution of Caliph Al-Musta and the destruction of the city. The House of Wisdom is one of the largest libraries in the world.
Khan died in August 1259. There is a civil war between his brothers.
The leader of the Mongols is forced to surrender. The leadership of the Mongol Empire is not accepted by all groups.
Marco Polo is said to have visited China and met Kublai Khan.
The last remnants of the southern Song dynasty are destroyed by the Yuan dynasty.
The rulers of the Ilkhanate dynasty converted to Islam.
The mausoleum for the ruler of the Ilkhanate is complete.
The last remnants of the Ilkhanate are destroyed.
The collapse of the Yuan dynasty was caused by a rebellion in China. Xanadu is destroyed and the Mongols are forced to leave.
The Golden Horde was reunified after the civil war.
The Golden Horde was defeated at the Battle of the Terek River. What is left of the horde is going to fall.
The last khan of the Chagatai Khanate is deposed.
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