The Roman Republic lasted from 509 B.C. to 27 B.C.
The last king of Rome was deposed in 509 B.C., and according to ancient Roman writers, the Roman Republic emerged. The year when the ruler of Rome, "Augustus", was given the title "revered one" is considered to be the official end of the Roman Republic.
The Roman Republic was a period of territorial expansion presided over by a government that was designed to represent both the wealthy and poor citizens of ancient Rome. The system resulted in harsh treatment for anyone who wasn't a Roman.
Slow expansion.
It took centuries for Rome to conquer all of Italy, according to historical and archaeological remains. The whole fifth century B.C. was taken up with battles against the wealthy and powerful Etruscan city of Veii, which took a century. Veii was conquered and destroyed in 396 B.C. The Gauls sacked Rome in 395 B.C., ending any celebratory attitude.
In the fourth century B.C., the Roman military fought against both the "Samnites" and a group of cities known as the "Latin League", according to Bringmann.
The leader of the Gauls put his sword on the scale when the Romans complained about a false weight on the scale.
Rome gradually took over cities and territories in Italy. Rome built colonies on territory that had been conquered. Sometimes a city would join with Rome, granting full or limited Roman citizenship. At other times, a city would agree to form an alliance with Rome and provide troops to Rome. Rome would gradually take control of the Italian mainland during the fourth and third centuries B.C.
Rome built up a large force of soldiers who were either Roman citizens or citizens of cities allied with Rome. Polybius is the Greek historian. Rome could field a force of over one million soldiers by the year 215 B.C. "None of the great Mediterranean powers with whom Rome fought wars in the third or second centuries B.C. could match the figures of this kind," Bringmann said.
Rome was able to replace soldiers who had been killed or wounded because of the large source of military manpower. This was important during many conflicts. Between the years of 280 B.C. and 275 B.C., Rome fought a war against King Pyrrhus, who ruled a kingdom called "Epirus" that included parts of modern-day Albania and northern Greece. Pyrrhus won several military victories during this war, which resulted in heavy casualties. King Pyrrhus was defeated during the war because his forces were not able to replace their losses. "Pyrrhic victory" is a term used to describe a victory that takes a heavy toll on the victor, a toll that may prevent them from winning a war.
What was the Roman Republic?
The Roman senate was an important part of the Roman Republic. The image is from Shutterstock.
The Roman Republic incorporated a senate, consuls, magistrates, tribunes, and at times a dictator in a complex system. The interests of both the patricians and the plebeians were incorporated into the system over time.
The system consisted of two consuls, two quaesters, and two aediles. The rule that required one to be from a patrician background and one from a plebeian background was established by the republic.
For voting purposes, a person's wealth or geographic location could affect which century and tribe they belonged to. When Roman territory expanded, the republic system broke down, leading to two or more strongmen fighting for control of Rome.
The Punic Wars were fought.
Rome gained control of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and parts of Spain and North Africa after three wars against Carthage, a city in North Africa. The first war was fought from 260 B.C. to 241 B.C., and saw battles in Sicily, Malta, Lipara, the coast of mainland Italy, North Africa and the Mediterranean Sea. Rome captured the Carthaginian force in Sicily during the final battle of the first war. Sicily wasceded to Rome by Carthage.
The second Punic War took place from 218 B.C. to 202 B.C., when the Carthaginian general led an invasion force overland through the Alps into Italy. The force captured several towns in Italy but took large losses. The Romans invaded North Africa and forced the retreat of Hannibal. Carthage was conquered by the Romans, who forced the city to give up its independence and cede it to Rome.
The second Punic War is depicted in this painting. The image is from Fine Art Images/Heritage Images.
Carthage was wiped out by a Roman force in the third Punic War. The Romans "salted the earth" after Carthage's destruction to make it harder for people to grow crops in the area.
The wars left Rome as the most powerful state in the Mediterranean, and it was able to expand its power eastward into the Balkans, Greece and the Middle East.
Rome's victory was due to the fact that it had a larger military force. Polybius claimed that the Romans could counter the invasion force of the Carthaginians with over one million men.
Carthage had to come up with cash to pay a mercenary force during the Punic Wars because it tried to increase its troops by hiring mercenaries.
Between the second and third Punic Wars, Rome expanded in the Balkans and Greece, gaining territory that it held either direct or indirect control over. The year 146 B.C. was when Rome destroyed Carthage, a city in Greece that had opposed Roman expansion into the eastern Mediterranean.
Mary Beard, a professor of Classics at the University of Cambridge, wrote in her book "SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome" that Rome had destroyed its rivals.
Sicily, Sardinia, parts of North Africa and Greece were all secured by Rome after Carthage and Corinth were destroyed. The Balkans were also controlled by it.
Beard wrote that in 149 B.C., a permanent court was set up in Rome so that foreigners could seek compensation from Roman governors who had taken property from them.
Beard wrote that private companies sometimes collected taxes in the newly conquered territories. Beard wrote that the company would try to make a profit by keeping anything over the amount it bid on.
End of the Roman Republic.
Rome's territory continued to grow after 146 B.C., but the city's republic government crumbled. Sulla, Pompey, Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, and Octavian were strong men who vied for control of Rome. There were civil wars and violent unrest during this time.
The rise of the strongmen and the fall of the Roman Republic was caused by the increasing amount of wealth in Rome, according to the Roman historian. The root of all evils were the lust for money and power.
Roman historians regretted the destruction of peaceful politics. Violence was seen as a political tool. Beard wrote in her book that traditional restrains and conventions broke down one by one until swords, clubs and rioting replaced the ballot box.
Tensions between Rome's poorer and wealthier classes increased after Carthage and Corinth. Beard wrote that Roman senators killed tribunes of the people after they pressed for land reform or the distribution of free food to Rome's poor. After the tribune named Gaius Gracchus was killed, those who supported the senators went on a killing spree. Beard wrote that Roman historical records said that the "bodies of thousands of Gaius Gracchus' supporters blocked the river."
Many communities in Italy had limited or no citizenship status, which made them vulnerable to abuse and left them unrepresented in the government. The "social war" was fought in Italy between 91 B.C. and 88 B.C.
The marks of the Roman bombardment of Pompeii can be seen on the city walls, but Rome offered citizenship to people who had not taken up the offer.
The Roman consul, named Lucius Cornelius Sulla, took advantage of the instability to march on Rome. Sulla wanted to take on Pontus, a kingdom in the Black Sea. After defeating Pontus, he was given the command and four years later he was appointed dictator.
Beard wrote that Sullasided over a reign of terror and the first organized purge of political enemies in Roman history. "The names of thousands of men, including a third of all senators, were posted throughout Italy, a generous price on the heads for anyone cruel, greedy or desperate enough to kill them," Beard wrote. Sulla died in the year 80 B.C. after he resigned.
Rome was involved in wars in Spain, Thrace and Italy in the wake of Sulla's death, and an escaped gladiator built up an army that may have numbered 40,000 people. It was made up of slaves who had escaped their Roman enslavers and freedmen who decided to join their cause. The Roman forces were defeated by Spartacus in 71 B.C.
The strongmen would keep on rising. In 66 B.C., the leader of the Roman army was named "Pompey" and he conquered the kingdom. Jerusalem was conquered in 63 B.C. and Pompey returned to Rome in 60 B.C.
Pompey formed a triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Marcus Licinius Crassus. One of the richest men in Rome, the man known as Crassus, used his wealth to help build his political power.
Caesar was the commander of an army that conquered Gaul and was killed in 50 B.C. while campaigning in Britain.
In January 49 B.C. Caesar led his troops across the river and to Rome. Caesar said "the die is cast" when he crossed the Rubicon, according to some historical records.
After suffering a defeat at the Battle of Pharsalus, Pompey fled to Egypt in hopes of gaining support from Ptolemy XIII, the teenage ruler of ancient Egypt. Caesar ordered Cleopatra VII to become co-ruler of Egypt. Ptolemy XIII tried to fight Caesar and Cleopatra, but he was killed in 47 B.C., either by Roman forces or by being drowned.
Caesarion was the son of Cleopatra and Caesar. Historians disagree on whether the child was truly Caesar's.
The battles against the Pompey loyalists took place in North Africa and Spain, even though Pompey was dead. The Black Sea kingdom of Pontus was defeated by Pompey a few decades ago. Caesar is said to have said "I came, I saw, I conquered" or "I came, saw and conquered" after defeating Pontus. Even though Caesar did a lot, there were still many in Rome who did not like the idea of a single man having so much power.
Caesar was named the "dictator for life" in 44 B.C. Caesar had enough support from the senate to get the measure passed, but many senators were opposed to giving him the title. Caesar was stabbed to death inside the senate by a group of senators.
Three major groups gained power in Rome after Caesar's death. Caesar's great-nephew was named as his adopted son and heir in his will. Mark Antony, one of Caesar's generals, led the other group.
In northern Italy and Gaul, forces loyal to Antony and Octavian battled each other for a short time. In 42 B.C., the combined forces of Antony and Octavian defeated the force of Brutus and Cassius in Greece.
A triumvirate was formed with a politician named Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony and Cleopatra had three children together after Antony and Anthony had an affair with Cleopatra VII.
The Battle of Actium was the final battle of the Roman Republic and was fought in 31 B.C.
After a decade, the truce broke down and the two were forced to fight each other, with Antony and Cleopatra controlling both Egypt's troops and Rome's forces in the Middle. The Battle of Actium took place in September of 31 B.C. and was the scene of the destruction of Antony and Cleopatra's naval forces. After some fighting, the forces of Octavian were able to capture Alexandria.
Antony and Cleopatra died by suicide in 30 B.C., not wanting to be held captive by the forces of Octavian. Egypt was turned into a Roman province by Octavian's forces.
After decades of civil war, the last strongman was Octavian. The senate gave him the name "Augustus", which can be translated as "revered one," according to Beard. The year 27 B.C. is considered to be the end of the Roman Republic by modern-day historians.
Modern day historians decided to mark 27 B.C. as the start of the Roman Empire. After the death of Antony and Cleopatra VII, the title "Augustus" gave Octavian full control of the kingdom.
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